PROFICIENCY CONSTRUCTIONS OK

PROFICIENCY CONSTRUCTIONS

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THE PLEONASTIC "It" (The extra "It")

Living alone makes it hard to find someone to blame. 

That makes it hard for you to bear.

I dislike it when people make me look small.

She hates it if I touch her things.

I take it that you know what I am talking about.

I owe it to you to tell you the truth.

I imagine it to be hard work, learning to play the violin.

I don't think he would like it if you said that to him.

Narcissistic parents frequently play the guilt card which makes it hard for you to live an independent life.

Some people find it difficult to understand English construction.

You always feel nervous around new people, and this nervousness makes it hard for you to relax. 

ADVERBS

COMMENT / VIEWPOINT ADVERBS

Comment adverbs are adverbs like ‘luckily’, ‘clearly’, or ‘obviously’ and these can come before the subject if we want to highlight or focus attention on the clause that follows. When we’re speaking we usually pause after the adverb and in the written form we use a comma. 

Viewpoint adverbs are placed at the beginning, or more rarely, at the end of the sentence. They are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Commenting adverbs are placed before the main verb unless the verb "to be" is used, in which case placement can be either before or after the verb. (I am always late or  ... but I always am late in fact (emphatic position)

Absolutely, bravely, carelessly, certainly clearly, cleverly, confidentially, definitely, disappointingly, foolishly,  fortunately,  generously, kindly,  luckily,  naturally, obviously, personally, positively, presumably, really, seriously, simply, stupidly, surely, technically, theoretically, thoughtfully, truthfully, unbelievably, undoubtedly, unfortunately, wisely ..

ADVERB OF EMPHASIS (INTENSIFIER)

Common adverbs of emphasis include absolutely, certainly, clearly, definitely, frequently, naturally, obviously, perhaps, positively, really, simply, sometimes and undoubtedly, (very) often, 

Very often, I feel like giving up the struggle.

On many occasions, he has struck her.

Frequently, you see reports of people being robbed.

Perhaps, you will understand one day. 

Obviously, I’d like to do a job that was stimulating as well as well paid.

I was flat broke and the rent was due. Clearly, I needed to find a job.

Sometimes, I regret growing old.

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH BASIC VERBS

HAVE 

You had better be careful what you say to her.

Marriage is give and take. You'd better give it to her or she'll take it anyway. Joey Adams

KNOW 

Fancy his being married all these years without my knowing it.

TAKE

I took him to be a student.

I took it that he was a studen. 

She took my saying that in a very bad part (she was very offended at what I said).

Quotes

Do not take life too seriously. You will never get out of it alive. Elbert Hubbard

WANT

He wants his son to have a house of his own. (The object and infinitive construction. Never use a clause beginning  with that after want.)

If you want your children to be Happy , read them fairy tales. If you want them to be Happier, read them more fairy tales.

WOULD RATHER / SOONER

I would rather / sooner stay than go out. (infinitive without to).

She would rather die than be fast.

I'd rather annoy with the truth than please with adulation. Seneca 

I would rather  / sooner  you stayed in than went out. (here stayed and went are subjunctives)

See also prefer.  

THE GERUND 

Please forgive my harping on the subject. (talk incessantly about sth).

Don't mention seeing me there.

I resent your taking such liberties.

The gerund will be used after all prepositions, whether or not used after verbs. This "government of verbs" is perhaps the most difficult thing in the whole of English construction:

I have done away with using trams.

I am worried about getting into debt.

I put off going there too long.

FORMAL STRUCTURES (Inversion). To give focus, restricted to literary context:  ...

Here are some negative adverbs and adverb phrases that we often use with inversion: 

hardly, never, seldom, rarely, only when, not only ... but ..., no sooner, scarcely, only later, nowhere, little, only in this way, in no way, on no account

In the following expressions, the inversion comes in the second part of the sentence:

Not until, not since, only after, only when, only by.

NOTE: We only use inversion when the adverb modifies the whole phrase and not when it modifies the noun: Hardly anyone passed the exam. (No inversion.)

1. We can use inversion instead of 'if' in conditionals with 'had' 'were' and 'should'. This is quite formal: 

Normal conditional: If I had been there, this problem wouldn't have happened. 

Conditional with inversion: Had I been there, this problem wouldn't have happened.

2. We can use inversion if we put an adverbial expression of place at the beginning on the sentence. This is also quite formal or literary:

Round the corner came the knights. (Normal sentence: The knights came round the corner.)

3. We can use inversion after 'so + adjective...that':

So beautiful was the girl that nobody could talk of anything else. (Normal sentence: the girl was so beautiful that nobody could talk of anything else.) 

So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite. (Normal sentence: the food was so delicious that we ate every last bite.)

At no time did I think we were going to lose. Jodie Gibson

Had we not caught the earlier plane, we would have missed our connecting train.

Her grade C in the Proficiency exam, if a little lower than expected, was still a good result.

Children begin by loving their parents; after a time they judge them; rarely, if ever, do they forgive them. A Woman of No Importance, Oscar Wilde.

Not only is there no God, but try finding a plumber on Sunday. Woody Allen 

Only when the tide goes out do you discover who's been swimming naked. Warren Buffett

(As) much as I respect ...

COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES (Comparative clauses)

1. Can use adjectives in 'as … as' and 'so … that' in comparative structures. ► comparative1. SO + adjective + AS TO. (formal) 

2. so ... as to, not nearly as cold as, is no more qualified to be a doctor than I am, every bit as beautiful as, There are a lot fewer people attending the gym now than when it first opened, half as clever as

Travellers should not be so ignorant as to think they can understand other nationalities better when they have once lived in one of their hotels.

3. FORM: 'AS IF' + NON-FINITE CLAUSE 

I was so frightened that my heart was beating like crazy as if trying to leave my body. Because of this, my mother never denied us anything, as if trying to compensate for our father's death.

4. FORM/USE: WITH 'NOT THAT MUCH' 

Can use 'not that much' to modify comparative adjectives to a small degree.

Although she is not that much older than I am, one could think there were quite a few years between us.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

FORM/USE: 'IN THAT' (clarification)

Can use 'in that' as a subordinating conjunction, to give greater in-depth explanation, often in formal contexts.

Nowadays it is widely argued that professional sports are damaging to people's health in that they involve gruelling training sessions as an integral part of the occupation.

PHRASAL VERBS

MODIFIERS / QUANTIFIERS: intensifiers (amplifiers), diminishers (downtoners)

Happy is the man who finds a true friend, and far happier is he who finds that true friend in his wife. Franz Schubert

I think women are foolish to pretend they are equal to men; they are far superior and always have been. William Golding

SUPERLATIVES: 

Can use 'the slightest', 'the faintest' with a specific range of nouns to express the least amount possible, most frequently following a negative verb form.

ADVERBS AS MODIFIERS (In mid clause position)

Apparently, supposedly, surprisingly ...

He was quite nice to me, surprisingly and he told him that he would do his best but that the music was not too loud.

The idea was mentioned in the report of the town council but surprisingly seems to have been forgotten afterwards.

COMMENTS

We can use adverbs in mid position, to distance the writer from what they are saying. While we see these adverbs being used as stance (viewpoint) devices at C1 it is the emergence of them in mid clause position, and with a distancing function, which increases at C2 level.

PRE-MODIFIED ADVERBS

Almost exclusively ...

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS  (Idioms)

There is nothing to writing. All you do is sit down at a typewriter and bleed. E. Hemingway

EXPRESSIONS

put the blame on, face up to the fact that, surpassed my expectations, by no means, Doctors believe that a strong link has been established between smoking and premature death.

1. put the blame on

1. put the blame on

1. put the blame on

BINOMIALS WITH "AND"

High and dry, 

SIMILIES

to be dull as dishwater, 

COLLOCATIONS

DISCOURSE MARKERS (Starters)

Broadly speaking ... (for generalizing)

CONJUNCTIONS AND LINKING WORDS 

Being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone deeply gives you courage. Lao Tzu

whereas, although, as, since, 

LINKING PHRASES

Happiness is not always a choice, but even so, life is 90% the way you look at things.

Some people think football is a matter of life and death. I assure you, it's much more serious than that. Bill Shankly

God is within your mind. God is within all things. As a matter of fact, there is nothing that is not God. Frederick Lenz

in short, in any case

FORMING COMPOUND WORDS

The changes to the government will have wide-ranging implications for ordinary people.

cast-offs, organize a get-together, suffer traumatic flashbacks

RELATIVE PRONOUNS (who, whom, which, what, that)

It is not how much we have, but how much we enjoy that makes happiness. Charles Spurgeon

Gemini ladies have a natural multi-personality disorder, which makes it hard to understand them. Mother Theresa 

You always feel nervous around new people, and this nervousness makes it hard for you to relax.

"What" AS A PRONOUN

We can use what as a pronoun to mean ‘the thing(s) that’:  What we need to do is make a list of useful phone numbers. (the thing we need to do). I can’t decide what to buy Liz for her birthday.

"What and that"

"What" can be used only when there is no antecedent (noun or pronoun) to which it refers: I did not hear all that you said vs I didn't hear what you said. Goodness knows what will happen now. I did not understand what he wanted.

We don’t use "what" as a relative pronoun. We use which: This is the book which the lecturer mentioned. This is the book which the lecturer mentioned. 

What … for?

We can use what … for? in two ways. We can use it in informal situations to mean why?: 

What did you phone her for? (informal: Why did you phone her?) 

We can also use what … for?

to ask about the purpose of something: What’s that button for? (What is the purpose of that button?) It’s the on–off switch for the radio.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The term compound relative pronoun sounds complex, but it really isn’t. Simply put, compound relative pronouns apply universally to a number of people or things. They include whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever. 

Please tell whoever may call that I am not available. Whichever train you take from here, you will end at Charing Cross station. Carly will be successful at whatever she chooses to do in life.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

The English subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form that expresses something desired or imagined. We use the subjunctive mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody: wants to happen, anticipates will happen, imagines happening. Ex: She insists that he come.

The base subjunctive is typically used in that clauses after two structures: 

1. suggest-verb (or noun) + that, 

2. advisable/anxious-adjective + that

May you ennoble your present by recapturing the joys of the past. 

May you live as long as you want and never want as long as you live. 

May you always feel loved.

CONDITIONALS AND FORMAL STRUCTURES

Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever. Mahatma Gandhi

But for the traffic, I would have been here an hour ago. (If it weren't for the traffic I'd have been here an hour ago.

But for my mother greeing to pay the monthly repayments I could never have bought that motorbike. (If it hadn't been for)

If it weren't for the fact that I exercise every day, I would still be overweight. If it weren't for the fact that he's my father, I'd accuse him in public.

I would have been badly injured but for the fact that I was wearing a seat belt. (The fact (that) I was wearing a seatbelt saved my life). 

You can have the day off on Monday on condition (that) you make up the time later in the week.

Should you change your mind about ...

FUTURE HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONALS  (Only with dynamics verbs, not with estate verbs)

If I were getting promoted ...

FORMAL CONDITIONALS (Inversion)

Should you ...

Were it to be fine tomorrow, we could finish the painting.

"It is" SENTENCES ("It" as a kind of preparatory subject (pleonastic "it"), if the real subject begins with an infinitive or gerund. This is considered better style if the real subject is a long one, as it enables the longest part of the sentence to stand at the end.

NOTE: See Pleonastic "it".

It is a clear gain to sacrifice pleasure in order to avoid pain.

It's a good idea to have friends both in Heaven and in Hell. 

It's a relief to accept that not everything is under your control. 

It is nonsense to say that Germans are unable to change.

It's a nonsense that only 26% of Premier League players are English.

It's a question of whether we're going to go / look forward into/to the future, or backward to the past. 

(I think) it's a sensible thing not to read your fan mail - not to take it too seriously / personally (to be offended or upset by what someone said).

It's a weird sensation to be deafblind / unable to hear or speak and learning at the same time.

It's embarrasing not being able to understand what people say to you.

It's fun going abroad for the first time.

It's funny running into you again after so many years.

It's funny how I'm good at giving advice to others, but when it comes to helping myself, I don't know what to do.

It's no fun being lonely.  It's no fun being a loser. Trust me.

It's no fun to be a struggling young actor. It's a desperate thing, no way to be happy. If you have any alternative, you should take it.

It's no wonder that truth is stranger than fiction. Fiction has to make sense.

It is the test of a good religion whether you can joke about it. G.K. Chesterton

It's the people who try to be clever who never are; the people who are clever never think of trying to be. Gilbert Parker 

It's ok not to be perfect.

(In the end / At the end of the day), it's wiser to be single, than in the wrong relationship.

It's not about whether you're liked or not liked. 

CLEFT SENTENCES

"It is .... that" SENTENCES 

Can use 'It' + 'be' + noun + 'that' clause for focus.

A cleft sentence is a complex sentence (one having a main clause and a dependent clause) that has a meaning that could be expressed by a simple sentence. Clefts typically put a particular constituent into focus. In spoken language, this focusing is often accompanied by a special intonation.

It’s (a) lack of clarity that creates chaos and frustration. 

It's (a) lack of faith that makes people afraid of meeting challenges, and I believed in myself.

It is in order that we may not fall victims to an assassin that we consent to die / to be executed if we ourselves turn assassins. 

It's only by  facing things that you ever put them behind you.

It's only by not trusting (that) you turn someone into a liar.

It's only by saying 'no' that you can concentrate on the things that are really important.

It's pessimism  that  clouds our visión.

It's the fact of the house being on the main road that makes it hard to sell. vs The house is hard to sell due to the fact of it being on the main road.

It's the hard that makes it great. If it wasn't hard, everyone would do it.

"It's not ... but" SENTENCES

It is not a lack of love, but a lack of friendship that breaks a relationship / that makes  unhappy marriages.

It's not a lack of strength, lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will that stops many / that's the problema.

It's no longer a question of staying healthy. It's / but a question of finding a sickness you like.

It's not about ideas. It's just / but about making ideas happen *

It's not a question of McDonald's vanishing from the face of the earth. It's / but a question of these companies assuming some more responsibility for what they're selling. 

It's not (all) about losing weight but about being healthy and having fun. 

It's not about being thin, it's / but about (being) healthy (se trata de).

It's not about working anymore, it's / but about doing work I can be proud of. 

It's not how much we give but how much love we put into giving.

It's not that I'm so smart, it's just / but that I stay with the questions / problems (much) longer.

It's not who you love, it's how (you love). It's (really) a question of how you do it / of how far we're willing to go in order to let the ego shine.

It's not / no longer about being right or left, liberal or conservative, Democrat or Republican, it's just / but about trying to have good judgment.

"It is used to be ..." SENTENCES

BE TO + INFINITIVE

We use be to + infinitive when discussing formal or official arrangements or to give formal instructions or orders and your examples illustrate these aspects very well. Further examples might be: The Prime Minister is to make a further visit to Devon next week.

Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less. Marie Curie

PASSIVES: FORM FORM/USE: NON-FINITE PERFECT CLAUSES

Can use passive non-finite '-ing' perfect forms in subordinate clauses to give explanatory background information.

I myself, having been educated the hard way, would specifically insist on them getting the best possible school education.

Having been taught the rights and the wrongs, we had an idea about everything. 

Not having been given precise orders from the top, as usual he decided to work on his own initiative.

Who, being loved, is poor? Oscar Wilde

 

HEADWORDS

If you bungle raising your children, I don't think whatever else you do matters very much. Jackie Kennedy

All that matters is to play at a high level and do whatever it takes to help your team win. That's what it's (all) about.

The most important thing is to try and inspire people so that they can be great in whatever they want to do. Kobe Bryant

Whatever the situation and however disheartening it may be, it is a great hour when a man ceases adopting difficulties as an excuse for despondency and tackles himself as the real problem. No mood  — Harry Emerson Fosdick

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE 

FORM/USE: AFTER 'IF ONLY', IMAGINED PAST 

Can use the negative form after 'if only' to express regret. 

If only she had not changed, if only I had helped her, maybe we would still be best friends and  I would not be sitting here, writing about her! 

If only I hadn't been that rude!

FIXED EXPRESSIONS 'HAD IT NOT BEEN FOR', 'IF IT HADN'T BEEN FOR' 

Can use 'had it not been for' ? and 'if it hadn?t been for' with a modal form for giving reasons.

 

Had it not been for the fact that I had already read the article, I would have thought that this woman was at least thirty years old.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM/USE: 

WITH ADVERBS OF INDEFINITE FREQUENCY 

Can use the present continuous with a wide range of adverbs of indefinite frequency, often to talk about surprising or undesirable situations or events.

We are persistently asking ourselves questions about where we are from and why we are here. During life we are permanently learning and increasing our knowledge.

 The greatest mistake you can make in life is continually fearing that you'll make one. Elbert Hubbard

USE: POLITENESS 

Can use the present continuous with verbs that are not usually used in this form to make statements and requests sound less direct. 

Considering the importance of the matter, I am asking for your financial support. I'm asking permission to be excused from work for at least three days.

QUANTITY FORM/USE:

'MANY ARE THE' + NOUN, FOR FOCUS 

Can form complex noun phrases using an inverted form 'Many' + 'are' + noun phrase, followed by a relative clause, as a focusing device. ► focus

Many are the causes which have led us to a better and longer life.

Many are the examples of children who hate reading as they believe that it is pointless, but they are not able to judge from a young age.

FORM: 'A LOT' AND 'MUCH' 

Can use 'a lot' and 'much' as a subject pronouns. ► focus 

A lot has changed since prehistoric times. 

A lot depends on your background. 

Much has been said about the need for nuclear weapons, although after the end of USSR and consequently the end of the cold war, this topic was almost forgotten.

Much has been said about quality time, but children don't understand this concept, they only know whether you are there or you are not.

REFLEXIVE USE: 

DISCOURSE MARKERS 

Can use 'as for myself' as a discourse marker to introduce or focus on a personal opinion. 

As for myself, as you can clearly see from my account of this musical event, music still means an awful lot to me, and most probably allways will. 

As for myself I like taking responsibilities. 

As for myself, I grew up during the "internet era", the years when it was spreading to average peoples homes and therefore I can still remember life without it.

VERBS PATTERNS_WITH TO AND -ING 

FORM/USE: 'WOULD HATE' + 'TO' 

Can use 'would hate' + 'to' infinitive, for emphasis. 

We in the student committee would hate to see all that space go to waste. 

I am very much aware of my parents? mistakes and would hate to make the same ones.

SUBSTITUTION, ONE, ONES, NONE FORM/USE: 

'THE ONE(S) THAT', FOR FOCUS 

Can use 'The one(s) that' + clause in subject position, for focus. ► focus 

The one that impressed me a lot is the Chinese Lunar New Year Carnival which was held in Hong Kong in January this year. 

The one that I think will have permanent results is the raising of the financial standard of all these countries.

The ones that he preferred were those where his imagination could fly away to other places and times, and where he could live the life of other people. 

The ones that wear clothes made by their mothers never seem to ask for much attention.

ELLIPSIS. QUESTIONS ALTERNATIVES FORM: 

Can form alternative questions with two or more clauses and ellipsis in the second or third clause. 

Is it not better to take the television away or stop them going to the cinema? 

Do you enjoy reading, find it a waste of time or have an indifferent attitude to it? 

Is he going to give it back to me or show it to everybody?

AVOIDING REPETITION ????? b2?

WOULD

Can use a wide range of adverbs with 'would', including 'undoubtedly', 'possibly', 'normally', 'personally', 'eventually', 'obviously', 'significantly', 'inevitably'.